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1.1. Background and History of advice and Counseling in general in School custom and other setting
The history of school counseling formally started at the turn of the twentieth century, although a case can be made for tracing the foundations of counseling and advice ideas to old Greece and Rome with the philosophical teachings of Plato and Aristotle. There is also evidence to argue that some of the techniques and skills of modern-day advice counselors were practiced by Catholic priests in the middle ages, as can be seen by the dedication to the opinion of confidentiality within the confessional. Near the end of the sixteenth century, one of the first texts about work options appeared: The Universal Plaza of All the Professions of the World, (1626) written by Tomaso Garzoni quoted in Guez, W. & Allen, J. (2000). Nevertheless, formal advice programs using specialized textbooks did not start until the turn of the twentieth century.
Counseling is a opinion that has existed for a long time in Tanzania. We have sought through the ages to understand ourselves, offer counsel and invent our potential, become aware of opportunities and, in general, help ourselves in ways connected with formal advice practice. In most communities, there has been, and there still is, a deeply embedded conviction that, under allowable conditions, people can help others with their problems. Some people help others find ways of dealing with, solving, or transcending problems as Nwoye, (2009) prescribed in his writings. In schools, presently if the collaboration in the middle of teachers and students is good, students learn in a practical way. Young people invent degrees of freedom in their lives as they become aware of options and take benefit of them. At its best, helping should enable people to throw off chains and manage life situations effectively. Unprecedented economic and communal changes have, over the years, changed the ways in which we manage our lives. Consequently, not all the lessons of the past can effectively deal with the challenges of modern times. Effective counseling, especially in institutions of studying has now become important. Boys and girls, and young men and women, need to be guided in the relationships in the middle of health and the environment, earning skills, knowledge, and attitudes that lead to success and failure in life. The need for counseling has become famous in order to promote the well-being of the child. Effective advice and counseling should help to heighten the self-image of young people and facilitate achievement in life tasks. Counseling should empower girls and boys to share fully in, and benefit from, the economic and communal improvement of the nation.
2.0. Definitions of Concepts
2.1. Guidance
Guidance is an act of showing the way for some people, like adolescents, who cannot find the right path. It is directing, pointing, prominent and accompanying. advice is saying "Yes" to man who is request for help. It is saying "Yes" to an invitation of man who wants a temporary companion along life's way.
Guidance is giving directions to the lonely, confused, unloved, the suffering, the sick and the lost. It is pointing to some possibilities of thinking, feeling and acting. It is prominent the man psychologically, emotionally and even spiritually to some newer ways of meaningful living. It is with those who are fearful and uncertain, those who need man along the rugged path of life's journey.
From an objective point of view, advice is part and parcel of the counseling profession. It is called directive counseling. High school and even college students need advice when they are unsure of what choices to make or what directions to take. The advice advisor "opens up" a world of choices for these persons for them to choose from. It is like presenting the universe when all that a man sees is the lonely planet earth. The advice advisor enlarges and widens the horizon of people who sees only a narrow path or a concealed view of that path. Thus, the focus is on possibilities and choices.
Usually, advice occurs in schools. High school and college students avail of advice and counseling services in their school. More often, young people are unsure of what to do, how to react or respond, and how to act in obvious choices. When this occurs, they need man older, wiser and more experienced to show them the way, to guide them. This is the role of the advice advisor to expand aid when principal to those who are confused, uncertain, and needing advice. However, some adults may need advice too.
2.2. Counseling:
Counseling is guiding and more. It is a way of medical hurts. It is both a science and an art. It is a science because to offer counsel, advice or assistance, the advisor must have the knowledge of the basic ideas and techniques of counseling. The advisor must be able to use any of these basic ideas and techniques as paradigms in order for him to counsel well. However, it is not enough to use know these basic ideas and techniques. The other prominent aspect is for the advisor to know how to counsel-the art of counseling. This aspect considers counseling as a relationship, as a sharing of life, in the hope that the man who is hurting will be healed. As a relationship, counseling involves the physical, emotional, and psychical or spiritual dimensions. The advisor must have the capability to communicate to the counselee in an accepted bodily manner without being too intimate or too close for relieve or being too distant or aloof. The emotional dimension in counseling includes empathy, sensitivity and the capability to expound non-verbal clues of the counselee in order to understand unresolved complexes or pent-up feelings. The psychical or spiritual dimension embraces the counselee's "soul-content"---what lies inside. This is what is called the interiority of the person. The advisor must have the gift or grace of catching a glance of the interior world of the person, particularly his spiritual condition, for this is very prominent in medical the person's hurts.
2.3. Other Definitions of the Concepts
Biswalo (1996) defines advice as a term used to denote the process of helping an private to gain self insight and self direction (self decision-making) so that he can adjust maximally to his home, school or community environment. This process, however, depends on counseling. He also defines counseling as a process of helping an private to accept and use facts and advice so that he can either solve his gift question or cope with it successfully. He goes additional remarking that sometimes the process helps the private to accept unchangeable situation for example, loss of dearly loved ones and to some extent convert it in its favour rather than letting himself be overcome by the situation. Guez and Allen (2000) glance that it is difficult to think of a single definition of counseling. This is because definitions of counseling depend on theoretical orientation. Counseling is a learning-oriented process, which occurs ordinarily in an interactive relationship, with the aim of helping a man learn more about the self, and to use such insight to enable the man to become an Effective member of society. Counseling is a process by means of which the helper expresses care and concern towards the man with a problem, and facilitates that person's personal increase and brings about convert through self-knowledge. Counseling is a association in the middle of a implicated man and a man with a need. This association is ordinarily person-to-person, although sometimes it may involve more than two people. It is designed to help people to understand and expound their views, and learn how to reach their self-determined goals through meaningful, well-informed choices, and through the resolution of emotional or interpersonal problems. It can be seen from these definitions that counseling can have different meanings.
3.0. Origin of advice and Counseling custom in Pre-Colonial Era
Counseling in Tanzania in different forms and with different interpretations, has existed in societies for a long time before colonial era. The differences and contradictions in present-day, have their origin in the communal and historical troops that have shaped modern culture. In Tanzania people in all societies, and at all times, have experienced emotional or psychological distress and behavioural problems. In each culture, there have been well established ways and methods of helping individuals with their problems. However, there are no enough written sources about the origin of advice and counseling custom in Tanzanian schools. But like other places before colonial era there were outstanding unique elements which held the societies together in their livelihood. The elements include the extended family system, together with the clan and the tribe, chieftaincy, taboos, discrete forms of initiation and close links with ancestors and elders.
The settlement is the focal point of society. While each one of these elements is important, only a few are used to expound the role of advice and counseling in present-day Tanzanian societies. Basically, primary chiefs had multiple roles which included serving as a seal of authority and as a regulator. Since these roles were accepted and respected by all, there was a clear direction in the day-to-day affairs of society. The elders, the chief included, were a principal source of advice and counseling for boys and girls. In most cases, the chiefs were regarded as a vital link in the middle of ancestors and the gift generation. This link was strengthened by the rituals, ceremonies and taboos attached to them. It was easy to guide and counsel the young, since the rituals or ceremonies were also aimed at preparation for adult roles in society. The extended family, the clan, and the village, made community supportive. No private regarded him/herself as alien. Counseling was easily sought and provided. The forms of advice and counseling complex were given advice and sharing wisdom.
4.0. The Developments of advice and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools
4.1. advice and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools Trends
In realizing this perhaps, since we are reasoning of the concepts in school setting, we should think the meaning of counseling in schooling discipline. One could think that the definitions given above on the term advice and counseling, their meaning can be directed to schooling grounds and now give the meaning correctly. Guez and Allen (2000) pointed out that a term educational counseling was first coined by Truman Kelley in 1914 in Makinde, (1988), educational counseling is a process of rendering services to pupils who need aid in development decisions about prominent aspects of their education, such as the selection of courses and studies, decisions concerning interests and ability, and choices of college and high school. Educational counseling increases a pupil's knowledge of educational opportunities.
The ever growing complexity of community in Tanzania, coupled with communal problems like Hiv/Aids and the rapid improvement of science and technology, place heavy demands on education. The school, as an prominent communal institution, was required to adapt swiftly to changing patterns, and help prepare citizens for tomorrow's challenges. That is where advice and counseling in the educational ideas should help boys and girls alike, to invent their capacities to the full. These include intellectual, social, bodily and moral capacities. This help is of the most prominent in Tanzania as long as the history and age of schooling provision and in its systems found today.
Guidance and counseling practices improvement in Tanzanian schools can be traced back from the time when vocational schooling was emerging right at the colonial period. In the process of establishing counseling services in Tanzania, there was a need to first understand the fundamental factors that influence people's beliefs and perceptions about such practices. However, this is opinion that was not taken in to notice at the time and it may be up to up-to-date time. It is especially prominent to understand the economic, socio-political, religious beliefs, customs and traditions, and cultural changes that are gift in different regions of the country. Young people should be understood within this context, but also within the paradoxical situation of having to face the primary and the modern world, but this is a big challenge to Tanzania and many developing African countries. During colonial period there were some form of vocational advice under the work advice and it was administered by work masters. But the work masters who were prime by the head of schools had no expert training in vocational guidance. In fact the duty was minute to helping students fill out employment forms and writing letters of application. In the missionary schools vocational advice was confined to religious services. The teachers who were ordinarily 'fathers', pastors, or reverends guided and trained spiritually inclined youths to become sisters, brothers, fathers and pastors upon their completion of formal education.
Apart of what could be done in schools in Tanzania, advice and counseling was more or less a incommunicable family affair. Parents and relatives counseled their children on all matters of life management and question solving. It is true that in many families the duty of general advice was the primary duty of senior members of the family, father, mother, uncle, aunt, and grandparents. In case of serious personal or family problems, counseling was done by a specially organized by the community as a competent in handling that specific problem. This is done without any knowledge obtained from formal or informal school ideas but rather through sense and age wise through collected wisdom. This kind of early form of counseling from school setting and community helped the young to be brought into the thoughprovoking image of living in the future to the society.
4.2. advice and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools in Post-colonial era
In some literatures and sources, advice and counseling in schooling sector in Tanzania and some other African countries is regarded as the youngest discipline. This is evidenced by First International discussion on Guidance, Counseling and Youth improvement in Africa held in Nairobi, Kenya from 22nd to 26th April, 2002 which pointed out that the Guidance, Counseling and Youth improvement Programme was initiated in Africa in April 1994, following the First Pan African discussion on the schooling of Girls that was held in Ouagadougou in 1993. It is designed to introduce or strengthen advice and counseling in African countries. It focuses on capacity building in the countries complex and provides training at both regional and national levels on issues of advice and counseling of schools and colleges.
What we can call expert advice and counseling in Tanzania schools begin in the year 1984 following the National October 1984 Arusha Conference, where advice and counseling services were endorsed by the government as and integral part of the country's schooling ideas (Biswalo, 1996). The aim of the discussion is to invent systematic criteria for secondary schools students' advice and counseling. Students were then advised, guided and counseled on matters concerning their job selection and trainee placement for additional education. This job was assigned to work masters and mistresses as explained below, however, there were no enough advice and counseling personnel not only in the responsible ministry but also in the schools.
Guidance and Counseling is now becoming gradually institutionalized and spread in educational institutions. Schools, for example, have to a large extent taken over the task of providing psychological preserve to boys and girls. Any way Biswalo (1996) comments that in Tanzania policies pertinent to advice and counseling is still lacking. The Ministry of Education, however, has somehow tried to institutionalize the services within the schooling ideas by appointing work masters and mistresses. He continued saying that the personnel are charged with the accountability of advising heads of secondary schools concerning students job selection and trainee placement for additional education; to try and help students understands and invent interest in accepted jobs or additional schooling or training; to asses the students talents and capabilities and to encourage them to pursue careers or additional schooling best suited to them and to help students solve their personal problems which may influence their general strengthen in school.
This is an impossible and realistic burden on these untrained personnel. It reflects the apathy of course and decision makers concerning the new field of advice and counseling in schools; the power of the myth of planned manpower in which work advice is erroneously regarded as redundant and the gross lack of trained personnel who would provide Effective advice and counseling services in schools. It is unfortunate that even after the National October 1984 Arusha discussion on the strengthening of schooling in Tanzania, where advice and counseling services were endorsed by the government as and integral part of the country's schooling system, the services are to-date still patchy and ineffective in Tanzania's educational institutions. advice and counseling in this manner is discussed by different scholars in primary, secondary and tertiary schooling levels together.
5.0. advice and Counseling Practices in primary and Secondary Schools
In primary school levels in Tanzania in actual fact there were and are no specified pupils' teacher-counselors. However, the performance is left to teachers themselves to rule what is to be done since there is no programmed or time-tabled performance concerning advice and counseling. Teachers are left to use part of the teaching to custom advice and counseling in and covering the classroom although not all teachers have gone teacher-counselor training. As children enter school they need orientation on school itself, its environment, school community and the curriculum to motivate and invent obvious attitude toward studying and school community as well (Biswalo, 1996). As the pupils grow older and pass through different grades they need to be directed in studying skills, overcome studying difficulties and other school connected problems. But this performance is not performed systematically in primary schools in Tanzania.
In the case of secondary schools till to-date there is also insufficient programmed or time-tabled ideas of guiding and counseling students. In some cases this duty is left to discipline masters and sometimes to class masters and head of schools. At secondary school level, students would seek educational opportunities, facts of all kinds and any other help pertinent to educational pursuits. These needs are catered to by educational advice and counseling (ibid). At this level students are helped with field choice, study techniques and tests and examination. Biswalo (1996) pointed out that sometimes During field choice, pride of placing as many students as potential in prestigious streams, such as science, takes precedence over actual abilities, interests and aptitudes of students. He said this unfortunate situation has been born out of the lack of genuine educational advice and counseling services in secondary schools.
The school has an prominent role to play in preparation pupils for continued secondary education, paid employment, self-employment and life in the community, as clearly set out by the Ministry of schooling in the objectives for its secondary curriculum. Perhaps uniquely, there would be total agreement among pupils, teachers and parents over the relative emphasis a obvious schools located on the preparation for additional education, with its focus on scholastic knowledge and the chase of success in the national examinations. That is, the secondary schools where counseling is not well performed located minute emphasis on citizenship and the improvement of a responsible attitude to life in the community at the local, regional or national level and employment opportunities. However, what is de-emphasized is the informal sector together with self-employment but the emphasized is employment in the formal sector with its implied emphasis on white collar jobs.
5.1. Vocational, work advice and Counseling
In Tanzania teachers have the capacity to directly influence their pupils' selection of careers. The achievements and attitudes of pupils have been shown to be connected to the characteristics and achievements of their teachers (World Bank, 1995; quoted in Nyutu, P.N. & Norman C.G. 2008). However, the influence of the school depends on the formal interactions and communication which take place in the middle of teachers and pupils in the classroom whereas television and radio, act through the informal interactions pupils have with these media. The influence of parents and siblings is through both formal and informal means.
That is in most cases in Tanzania and may be other states where advice and counseling is rarely done in schools; parents play the big role to influence on their children's selection of careers. Others who have lower level careers i.e. Teachers, clerks, drivers, personal secretaries, soldiers etc. Do not anticipate their children 'following in their footsteps' because for the children who are able to study to higher level sometimes saw these jobs as narrow and lacking in interest. Any way it is suggested that parents' work might have influenced their children's selection of careers, but this happened to children who have generic skills useful in such jobs, and a few may have job skills relevant to those jobs. Entrance to facts through the media and other forms of technology is giving young people aspirations that, for the most part, cannot be satisfied in their own environment. Choices have to be made and young people must accumulate the skills to compare situations and make informed decisions. There is no longer a natural, understandable order from birth to adulthood for the Tanzanian young.
Vocational advice at secondary school levels is provided but in very few among others because of shortages of school or vocational trained counselors. For those lucky schools with these kinds of counselors, students are helped but vocational counseling is not emphasized because most pupils, teachers and of course parents push students to make long range plans of study so that to prepare well for the envisaged careers. These counselors plan with school administrators and teachers to provide accepted class placement for students with extra abilities or disabilities for course selection by students.
5.2. Tertiary Level
The tertiary level students are provided with orientation and other educational advice and counseling. In Tanzania tertiary level have at least fulfilled the need of having suited students' counselors for both psychological and academics, though they are few in number. Here counselors play a big role in compiling extensive facts on all aspects of the careers connected to the training offered in the institution. Counselors sometimes integrate with management or practicum department to invent field practices for students and even more rarely might contacts with relevant employing agencies (Biswalo, 1996).
6.0. opinion on advice and Counseling in Tanzania
According to the study by Sima (2004), expert counseling is yet to be recognized as a stand-alone profession in Tanzania and in many African countries. Nevertheless, the coming and setting of Hiv/Aids in the country has strengthened the base for counseling. This is particularly because of the multifaceted nature of the Hiv/Aids pandemic whose attention, unlike other human diseases, goes beyond the prerogatives of the medical profession. Thus, counseling is perceived as a crucial avenue for arresting of Hiv infection through provision of enough and relevant information, and for communal and psychological preserve of people infected and affected by the pandemic. Ibid continued saying that since the emergence of the pandemic in the country, a amount of non-governmental organizations have been offering counseling services however, there is lack of clarity on the type and nature of counseling services offered by these organization. The nature and characteristics of counseling clients also remain fuzzy.
In Tanzania the expert counseling as aforesaid is relatively a new phenomenon. Outwater (1995) quoted in Sima (2004) comments that before Hiv/Aids epidemic, there was no formal counseling assistance in Tanzanian hospitals, no expert counselors and no formal ideas for training counselors. There was a need to fill this gap by training as many counselors as potential to provide optimal care for Aids patients and their relatives (Nacp, 1989; quoted in ibid). Since then many para-professional counselors have been trained in basic knowledge and skills of counseling. Currently there are many counseling centers working not only on Hiv/Aids connected problems but also different problems affecting Tanzanians. However, as counseling became favorite with the coming of Hiv/Aids, many people assume that it is only meant for people infected and affected by Hiv/Aids and shy away from it for fear of being labeled (Sima, 2002; quoted in Sima 2004).
7.0. Problems and Challenges
The Tanzanian government have not yet formulated in the schooling course issues pertaining advice and counseling in spite of the crucially and necessity in schools. Biswalo (1996) pointed out that in Tanzania policies pertinent to advice and counseling is still lacking. He continued saying that efforts directed towards fulfilling advice and counseling needs are apparently thwarted by some difficulties together with financial resources to preserve the even established tiny counseling activities in some schools.
In Tanzania till today counseling is relatively new phenomenon. There are no enough suited counselors in schools and other schooling institutions. However, there are minute amount of suited counselors, they are either not utilized well in schools or they are engaged in other activities rather than what they are trained for. Some of school counselors are also teachers and they are fully occupied with teaching responsibilities. More surprisingly counseling is perceived as a crucial avenue for only arresting of Hiv infection through provision of enough and relevant information, and for communal and psychological preserve of people infected and affected by the Hiv/Aids (Sima, 2004).
There is slow increase of advice and counseling in educational systems attributed to lack of funds, training facilities, and high turnover of advice counselors to green pastures and in adequately trained counselors. For instance in many schools they lack counseling offices, trained teacher-counselors and counseling equipments. In terms of funds there are discrete options that can be explored to alleviate financial constraints. extra schools on behalf of parents in need can arrival non-governmental organizations.
The absence of solid expert counseling association in Tanzania to set standards for the accepted custom is an additional one challenge (Nwoye, 2008). Also insufficient availability of expert advisor training programs in Tanzanian colleges and universities is an additional one contributing challenge.
There are no efforts to invent counseling curriculum in secondary schools and colleges and advice and counseling courses in the universities. advice curriculum and responsive services can then be structured to address the five content areas, namely human relationships, work development, communal values, self development, and studying skills. A advice curriculum could be taught to students at different levels or in small groups to address issues that are similar to them. For advice and counseling programs to be Effective in Tanzania, trained professionals should be employed to manage and offer services in schools. Such professionals should also be provided with relevant facilities and structural support. At the same time, universities and educator training institutions will have to invent and invent programs that train expert school counselors and other advice personnel.
There is still insufficient aid in higher schooling institutions to enable students achieves their work aspirations. However, students today indicate a higher need for work advice than students in the past decade. Students may therefore be encountering an increased need to accumulate relevant work facts that will enable them seek better paid jobs. Many schools have in the past appointed some teachers as work masters without providing them with the principal training and facilities for work guidance. Such work masters ordinarily assume that all students will end up in universities and only focus on helping students faultless university application forms and no more. It is the high time for the government to set and implement the course that will heighten advice and counseling from primary schools to the tertiary level and in turn will invent programs that train expert school counselors and other advice personnel.
8.0. Conclusion
Guidance and counseling sought to prepare pupils in their schooling agenda to enter into the world of accepted work by linking the school curriculum to employment. For the school to be victorious in this endeavor, subjects should be taught at a pleasant and convenient environment and should be made relevant and thoughprovoking to the pupils. an additional one factor that needs to be carefully is the recruitment of competent teachers capable of guiding and counseling learners in relating what they teach to the job market. What is taught and how it is taught can have great influence on the interest and perception of learners. In Tanzania the spirit to plan and use advice and counseling services in the Effective improvement and utilization of their respective young human resources is evidently strong. However, as Biswalo (1996) said the efforts directed towards fulfilling this need are apparently thwarted by some difficulties. It appears total and enlightened commitment on the part of course and decision makers is principal and should be certainly surmount the problems.
The emergence of work improvement in western countries as a invent suggests that it may be an principal area in developing country like Tanzania where students need assistance; students particularly need aid in choosing colleges and courses. To this end, the schools should offer a work advice and counseling programme under the able leadership of suited school counselors.
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